Hindusm

History of Hinduism denotes a wide variety of related Hindu denominations native to Indian Subcontinent, notably in Nepal and the Republic of India.[1] Its history overlaps or coincides with the development of Indian religions since Iron Age India. It has thus been called the "oldest living religion" in the world.[note 1] Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis[2][3][4] of various Indian cultures and traditions,[3][5][2] with diverse roots[6] and no single founder.[7][note 2]

The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development, with the first period being that of the historical Vedic religion dated from about 1750 BCE.[citation needed] The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions",[8] and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism, which coincides with the Gupta Empire.[citation needed] In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period[9] or early Middle Ages, in which classical Pauranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, which incorporated Buddhist thought into Vedanta, marking a shift from realistic to idealistic thought.

Hinduism under the Islamic rulers from 1100 to c. 1750, saw the increasing prominence of the bhakti movement, which remains influential today. The colonial period saw the emergence of various Hindu reform movements partly inspired by western movements, such as Unitarianism and Theosophy. The Partition of India in 1947 was along religious lines, with the Republic of India emerging with a Hindu majority. During the 20th century, due to the Indian diaspora, Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the United States and the United Kingdom. In the Republic of India, Hindu nationalism has emerged as a strong political force since the 1980s, the Hindutva Bharatiya Janata Party forming the Government of India from 1999 to 2004, and its first state government in South India in 2006.

Contents

1 Roots of Hinduism

2 Periodisation

3 Prevedic religions

3.1 Prehistory

3.2 Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE)

4 Vedic period (1750–500 BCE)

4.1 Origins

4.2 Rigvedic religion

4.3 Brahmanism

5 Second Urbanisation (500–200 BCE)

5.1 Upanishads and shramana movements

5.2 Survival of Vedic ritual

5.3 Mauryan empire

5.4 Sanskritization

6 Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE)

6.1 Pre-classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-300 CE)

6.2 "Golden Age" (Gupta and Pallava period) (c. 320-650 CE)

6.3 Late-Classical Hinduism - Puranic Hinduism (c. 650-1100 CE)

7 Islamic rule and sects of Hinduism (c. 1100-1850 CE)

7.1 Muslim rule

7.2 Unifying Hinduism

7.3 Early Modern period

8 Modern Hinduism (after c. 1850 CE)

8.1 Hindu revivalism

8.2 Reception in the West

9 Contemporary Hinduism

9.1 South Asia

9.2 Southeast Asia

9.3 Neo-Hindu movements in the west

9.4 Hindutva

10 See also

11 Notes

12 References

13 Sources

14 Further reading

15 External links

Roots of Hinduism[edit]

Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[2][note 3] or synthesis[3][note 4] of various Indian cultures and traditions.[3][note 5] Among its roots are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India [10][5] itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations",[11][note 6] but also the Sramana[12] or renouncer traditions[5] of northeast India,[12] and mesolithic[13] and neolithic[14] cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,[15] Dravidian traditions,[16] and the local traditions[5] and tribal religions.[17]

After the Vedic period, between 500[3]-200[18] BCE and c. 300 CE,[3] at the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period, the "Hindu synthesis" emerged,[3][18] which incorporated śramaṇic[18][19] and Buddhist influences[18][20] and the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the smriti literature.[21][18] This synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism.[22] During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written,[23][note 7] which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate and tribal groups undergoing acculturation."[23] The resulting Puranic Hinduism differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the Dharmaśāstras and the smritis.[23][note 8] Hinduism co-existed for several centuries with Buddhism,[24] to finally gain the upper hand at all levels in the 8th century.[25][web 1][note 9]

From northern India this "Hindu synthesis", and its societal divisions, spread to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia.[26][note 10][note 11][note 12] It was aided by the settlement of Brahmins on land granted by local rulers,[27][28] the incorporation and assimilation of popular non-Vedic gods,[web 2][29][note 13] and the process of Sanskritization, in which "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms".[web 2][note 14][30] This process of assimilation explains the wide diversity of local cultures in India "half shrouded in a taddered cloak of conceptual unity."[31]

Periodisation[edit]

See also: Outline of South Asian history

Outline of South Asian history

Riwatian people (1,900,000 BC)

Riwatian people (1,900,000 BP)

Soanian people (500,000 BC)

Soanian people (500,000 BP)

Stone Age (50,000–3000 BC)

Bhirrana Culture (7570-6200 BC)

Mehrgarh Culture (7000–3300 BC)

Bronze Age (3000–1300 BC)

Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1700 BC)

 – Early Harappan Culture (3300–2600 BC)

 – Mature Harappan Culture (2600–1900 BC)

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (from 2000 BC)

Vedic period (1750–1200 BC)

 – Late Harappan Culture (1700–1300 BC)

Swat culture (1600–500 BC)

 – Black and Red ware culture (1300–1200 BC)

Iron Age (1200–230 BC)

Vedic period (1200–500 BC)

 – Black and Red ware culture (1200–1000 BC)

 – Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)

 – Janapadas (1200–600 BC)

 – Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC)

Haryanka Kingdom (684–424 BC)

Three Crowned Kingdoms (6th Century BC - 1650 AD)

Maha Janapadas (600–300 BC)

Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)

Magadha Kingdom (500–321 BC)

Ror Kingdom (450 BC–489 AD)

Nanda Empire (424–321 BC)

Shishunaga Kingdom (413–345 BC)

Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC)

Maurya Empire (321–184 BC)

Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC)

Pandya Empire (300 BC–1345 AD)

Chera Kingdom (300 BC–1102 AD)

Chola Empire (300 BC–1279 AD)

Pallava Empire (250 BC–800 AD)

Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (250 BC–400 AD)

Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD)

Classical period (230 BC–1279AD)

Satavahana Empire (230 BC–220 AD)

Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC–300 AD)

Indo-Scythian Kingdom (200 BC–400 AD)

Shunga Empire (185–73 BC)

Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC–10 AD)

Kanva Empire (75–26 BC)

Indo-Parthian Kingdom (21–130s AD)

Western Satrap Empire (35–405 AD)

Kushan Empire (60–240 AD)

Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350 AD)

Nagas of Padmavati (210–340 AD)

Sasanian Empire (224–651 AD)

Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360 AD)

Vakataka Empire (250s–500s AD)

Kalabhras Empire (250–600 AD)

Gupta Empire (280–550 AD)

Kadamba Empire (345–525 AD)

Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000 AD)

Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100 AD)

Vishnukundina Empire (420–624 AD)

Maitraka Empire (475–767 AD)

Huna Kingdom (475–576 AD)

Rai Kingdom (489–632 AD)

Shahi Empire (500s–1026 AD)

Chalukya Empire (543–753 AD)

Maukhari Empire (550s–700s AD)

Harsha Empire (606–647 AD)

Tibetan Empire (618–841 AD)

Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075 AD)

Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 AD)

Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036 AD)

Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 AD)

Pala Empire (750–1174 AD)

Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982 AD)

Paramara Kingdom (800–1327 AD)

Yadava Empire (850–1334 AD)

Solanki Kingdom (942–1244 AD)

Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189 AD)

Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320 AD)

Hoysala Empire (1040–1346 AD)

Sena Empire (1070–1230 AD)

Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434 AD)

Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323 AD)

Kalachuri Empire (1130–1184 AD)

Late medieval period (1206–1596)

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD)

 – Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290 AD)

 – Khilji Sultanate (1290–1320 AD)

 – Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414 AD)

 – Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451 AD)

 – Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526 AD)

Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826 AD)

Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448 AD)

Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 AD)

Gajapati Kingdom (1434–1541 AD)

Deccan Sultanates (1490–1596 AD)

Early modern period (1526–1858)

Mughal Empire (1526–1858 AD)

 – Sur Empire (1540–1556 AD)

Maratha Empire (1674–1818 AD)

Sikh Empire (1799–1849 AD)

Colonial period (1510–1961)

Portuguese India (1510–1961 AD)

Dutch India (1605–1825 AD)

Danish India (1620–1869 AD)

French India (1759–1954 AD)

Company Raj (1757–1858 AD)

British Raj (1858–1947 AD)

Partition of India (1947 AD)

Other states (1102–1947)

Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766 AD)

Sutiya Kingdom (1187-1673 AD)

Deva Kingdom (1200s–1300s AD)

Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779 AD)

Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803 AD)

Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947 AD)

Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763 AD)

Koch Kingdom (1515–1947 AD)

Thondaiman Kingdom (1650–1948 AD)

Madurai Kingdom (1559–1736 AD)

Thanjavur Kingdom (1572–1918 AD)

Marava Kingdom (1600–1750 AD)

Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799 AD)

Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947 AD)

Kingdoms of Sri Lanka

Kingdom of Tambapanni (543–505 BC)

Kingdom of Upatissa Nuwara (505–377 BC)

Anuradhapura Kingdom (377 BC–1017 AD)

Kingdom of Ruhuna (200 AD)

Kingdom of Polonnaruwa (300–1310 AD)

Jaffna Kingdom (1215–1624 AD)

Kingdom of Dambadeniya (1220–1272 AD)

Kingdom of Yapahuwa (1272–1293 AD)

Kingdom of Kurunegala (1293–1341 AD)

Kingdom of Gampola (1341–1347 AD)

Kingdom of Raigama (1347–1415 AD)

Kingdom of Kotte (1412–1597 AD)

Kingdom of Sitawaka (1521–1594 AD)

Kingdom of Kandy (1469–1815 AD)

Portuguese Ceylon (1505–1658 AD)

Dutch Ceylon (1656–1796 AD)

British Ceylon (1815–1948 AD)

Nation histories

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Regional histories

Assam Balochistan Bengal Bihar Gujarat Himachal Pradesh Kashmir Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Rajasthan Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh Punjab Odisha Sindh South India Tamil Nadu Tibet

Specialised histories

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v t e

James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods", although this periodization has also received criticism.[32]

Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions,"[33] neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.[33] The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth century, while the south was never completely conquered.[33] According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes," which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.[34][note 15]

Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods" periodisation. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:[9]

Pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation (until c. 1750 BCE);

Vedic period (c. 1750-500 BCE);

"Second Urbanisation" (c. 500-200 BCE);

Classical period (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE);[note 16]

Pre-classical period (c. 200 BCE-300 CE);

"Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320-650 CE);

Late-Classical period (c. 650-1100 CE);

Islamic period (c. 1100-1850 CE) and beginning of western colonialism (c. 1500-1850);

Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from c. 1850).

History of Hinduism

James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817),[a] distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.[b][c] This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to.[d] Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods".[e]

Smart[f] Michaels

(overall)[g] Michaels

(detailed)[h] Muesse[i] Flood[j]

Indus Valley Civilisation and Vedic period

(c. 3000–1000 BCE) Prevedic religions

(until c. 1750 BCE)[k] Prevedic religions

(until c. 1750 BCE)[l] Indus Valley Civilization

(3300–1400 BCE) Indus Valley Civilisation

(c. 2500 to 1500 BCE)

Vedic religion

(c. 1750–500 BCE) Early Vedic Period

(c. 1750–1200 BCE) Vedic Period

(1600–800 BCE) Vedic period

(c. 1500–500 BCE)

Middle Vedic Period

(from 1200 BCE)

Pre-classical period

(c. 1000 BCE – 100 CE) Late Vedic period

(from 850 BCE) Classical Period

(800–200 BCE)

Ascetic reformism

(c. 500–200 BCE) Ascetic reformism

(c. 500–200 BCE) Epic and Puranic period

(c. 500 BCE to 500 CE)

Classical Hinduism

(c. 200 BCE – 1100 CE)[m] Preclassical Hinduism

(c. 200 BCE – 300 CE)[n] Epic and Puranic period

(200 BCE – 500 CE)

Classical period

(c. 100 – 1000 CE) "Golden Age" (Gupta Empire)

(c. 320–650 CE)[o]

Late-Classical Hinduism

(c. 650–1100 CE)[p] Medieval and Late Puranic Period

(500–1500 CE) Medieval and Late Puranic Period

(500–1500 CE)

Hindu-Islamic civilisation

(c. 1000–1750 CE) Islamic rule and "Sects of Hinduism"

(c. 1100–1850 CE)[q] Islamic rule and "Sects of Hinduism"

(c. 1100–1850 CE)[r]

Modern Age

(1500–present) Modern period

(c. 1500 CE to present)

Modern period

(c. 1750 CE – present) Modern Hinduism

(from c. 1850)[s] Modern Hinduism

(from c. 1850)[t]

Notes and references for table

Notes Smart[u] and Michaels[v] seem to follow Mill's periodisation (Michaels mentions Flood 1996 as a source for "Prevedic Religions".[w]), while Flood[x] and Muesse[y][z] follow the "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods" periodisation.[aa]

Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":

Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It's the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism (Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.[ab]), Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.[ac]

For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism",[ad] whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[ae]

Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.[af]

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